Is There Metal in Tattoo Ink Peer Reviewed Articles

Meghanne E. Tighe^1,two, D. Kai Libby^three, Stanna M. Dorn^one, Jeffrey R. Hosmer³, Graham F. Peaslee^two
1Chemical science Section, Hope College, Holland, USA.
ⁱⁱDepartment of Physics, Academy of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, United states.
³Health and Sciences Division, College of DuPage, Glen Ellyn, U.s..
DOI: 10.4236/jep.2017.811077   PDFHTML XML 3,005 Downloads 11,346 Views Citations

Abstract

While the practice of tattooing has existed for thousands of years, it has recently begun growing in popularity in the US. With the increasing prevalence of tattoos, the methods and inks involved in the tattooing process accept also adult. Tattoos now use many brightly colored inks, often made using metal-based pigments. There is concern that chemicals may be present in tattoo inks in concentrations that may lead to human health concerns either during application or removal of tattoos. Since exposure to metals has been linked to tremors, liver damage, memory loss, cognitive loss, and even death, at that place is concern nearly the prevalence of metals in tattoo inks in general. To this end, a survey of 226 commercial tattoo inks was performed and each ink was analyzed for the presence of heavy metals using two dissimilar x-ray methods: Particle Induced X-Ray Emission and Scanning Electron Microscopy/ Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy. Fifteen metals were identified in diverse tattoo inks by these rapid ten-ray methods, including chromium, manganese, nickel, copper, barium, and lead. Conclusions can be drawn about the prevalence of metals in some pigment colors and from some brands.

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Tighe, M. , Libby, D. , Dorn, S. , Hosmer, J. and Peaslee, Chiliad. (2017) A Survey of Metals Found in Tattoo Inks. Periodical of Ecology Protection, 8, 1243-1253. doi: x.4236/jep.2017.811077.

1. Introduction

The percentage of Americans with at least ane tattoo rose from 16% to 21% of the full population between 2003 and 2013 [1] . Since the 1970'due south, when tattoos began their ascent in popularity [two] , companies have been finding new formulas to create a wide array of colorful inks. The composition of many inks, all the same, may be a crusade for concern, since studies accept shown that metals and other compounds, both hazardous and unregulated, may exist present in tattoo inks [iii] [4] [5] [6] [seven] .

Metals are oftentimes used to produce brightly colored pigments, many of which could be used in tattoo inks. In the process of tattooing, the needle is loaded with ink and injected into the skin, past the epidermis and into the dermis, where the ink is deposited. Some blood vessels are broken in this process, providing a pathway for the ink and whatsoever associated metals to enter direct into the bloodstream. Furthermore, the tattoo light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation removal process (which is as well increasing in popularity together with tattooing) degrades and injects most of the inks from the skin directly into the bloodstream allowing for fifty-fifty higher exposure to the metals contained in the inks during the removal process. These metals tin can accrue in vital organs in the torso, which may crusade neurodegenerative diseases, disrupting of import bodily functions, and even causing cancer [8] . For example, the presence of metals and other chemicals in some inks applied to tattoos in the lumbar region will oft foreclose the assistants of an epidural anesthetic during childbirth [9] [10] [11] . While in the dermis, tattoo inks expose the body to small-scale amounts of these metals for an extended period of time. Since many metals have well-known chronic and acute toxicity effects in humans, this particular class of consumer product may atomic number 82 to metal poisoning of consumers in the absenteeism of regulation in the US.

This study was designed to analyze the metal content of a large number of commercially available tattoo inks to assess the prevalence of diverse metals available to the US market. The methods used to examine these inks included two X-ray methods, Particle Induced X-Ray Emission (PIXE) and Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) paired with Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS) performed at Hope College.

2. Methods

From 2014 to 2016, 226 tattoo inks were purchased from 18 unlike manufacturing brands. Local tattoo artists were asked which brands of ink were the almost pop in club to give a broad representation of inks well-nigh likely existence used past tattoo artists and consumers in the U.s.a.. The brands sampled in this survey include the following brands: Arcane, Color King, Deep Colours, Dermaglo, Dynamic, Eternal, Fusion, Intenze, Kabuki, Kuro Sumi, Mom'due south, Prizm, Skin Candy, Stable Sparse Line, Stable Traditional, Star Brite Colors, Waverly, and World Famous.

In preparation for x-ray assay, each ink sample was thoroughly shaken, and 1 to three drops of the sample was placed onto a 17 mm × twenty mm rectangular substrate of standard copier paper (Spectrum brand/Georgia-Pacific Papers) and allowed to dry. This paper had previously been tested to be free of any heavy elements except calcium [12] . The average diameter for each ink aliquot was roughly iii.vi mm. Because thickness of the ink spots on the substrate varied due to the differing densities of the private ink solutions, inks with lower densities were given multiple coats until sufficient thickness was accomplished. This non-uniformity added a caste of quantitative uncertainty, but complete homogeneity in thickness and smoothness was unnecessary as a majority of the characteristic 10-rays from the sample come from the outermost layer, approximately 100 - 200 µm into the sample for the well-nigh penetrating technique. Eight inks were typically loaded onto a single newspaper substrate and placed onto a solid aluminum target frame which held the paper in identify with no other substrate in the path of the ion axle.

All of the samples were analyzed via Particle Induced X-Ray Emission spectroscopy using the Hope College Ion Beam Analysis Laboratory (5SDH Pelletron Accelerator, National Electrostatics Corp, Middleton, WI). Each sample was irradiated with approximately 1.5 - 2.0 nA of 3.4 MeV protons for 300 seconds in a loftier vacuum scattering bedroom. The characteristic x-rays emitted from each sample were detected by a Si(Li) detector (Ortec, model SLP-10180-ST) located at 135˚ with respect to the beam axis. All samples were initially run with a 0.002" mylar filter placed between the target and X-ray detector to suppress back-scattered protons. This sparse filter allowed for G_α and Yard_β ten-rays to be recorded for elements heavier than sulfur. Approximately half of the samples were run once again with a 0.015 aluminum filter replacement to suppress all x-rays from elements lighter than atomic number 26. This method was particularly useful when a big titanium peak was observed and the high x-ray product rate from that element masked other elements at lower concentrations. A lower current of 0.iv nA was used with the aluminum filter to reduce the spectral fit fault. Elements with x-ray energies higher up 7.4 keV (>Ni) were primarily measured using the thicker aluminum filter, whereas those beneath 7.4 keV were primarily measured using the mylar filter. This immune for greater accuracy of quantification in departure energy regions of the spectrum.

Samples were periodically tested against a bare copier newspaper substrate mounted in the target frame to ensure no background elements could be seen from the target ladder. Furthermore, to ensure no contamination was coming from the paper onto which the ink was painted, a blank piece of the standard copier paper was analyzed periodically and was institute to exist absent of all detectable heavy elements except calcium. Each sample was analyzed in relation to a NIST calibration standard (SRM 1412) with certified concentrations of various elements, which immune for the accented normalization of elemental concentrations measured in each sample. The beam current used to measure each sample was measured in a Faraday cup that was inserted before and later on each run. At these beam energies and intensities, the PIXE analyses were entirely non-destructive for these samples. All elemental Yard_α x-rays were quantified for each sample using the thick-target option of the summit plumbing equipment plan GUPIXWin [13] Using this software, the measured x-ray yields were converted into an effective concentration (in ppm) in the dried pigment in each sample.

To assess the belittling reproducibility of the method x% of samples were replicated with PIXE 2 to three times. Two thirds of the samples were also analyzed with Scanning Electron Microscopy coupled with Electron Dispersal Spectroscopy. Similar to PIXE, SEM/EDS excites an chemical element'due south electrons just instead uses a xv keV electron beam. Because of a thinner filter SEM/EDS is more sensitive to lighter elements and PIXE, with its higher beam energy, is more than sensitive to heavier elements. Fifty-fifty with these slight differences, the two methods produced very comparable results.

three. Results

Among the 226 inks analyzed, xv metals and one halogen were present above the limit of quantification (LOQ). In order of prevalence, the elements plant were titanium, iron, chromium, copper, zirconium, manganese, bromine, nickel, niobium, strontium, zinc, barium, molybdenum, lead, vanadium, and tungsten as shown in Figure 1.

Titanium was seen in loftier concentrations in nigh 91% of the samples; titanium dioxide is a known brightener used in tattoo inks [14] and is non known to be toxic to humans even at high doses [15] . As titanium is mostly insoluble in water, the high presence of titanium dioxide nanoparticles renders inductively

Figure ane. Percent of inks containing elements above their LOQ with the percentage of inks in specific concentration ranges in order of atomic number.

coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP/MS) analysis difficult without consummate digestion, which is why ii x-ray methods were chosen for analysis instead. Zirconium, presumably in the form of zirconium dioxide which is a pigment additive used to glaze titanium dioxide particles [16] , was institute in over 40% of the inks, and is also considered relatively nontoxic. Atomic number 26 was also observed in almost ninety% of the ink samples, and is suspected to be in the form of iron oxide which is a known darkener used in tattoo inks [14] . Iron is non usually considered every bit a toxin, still, some of the inks with exceptionally high iron concentrations may be a cause for concern as iron can be potentially harmful at very loftier concentrations and can crusade problems to the cardiovascular and key nervous systems, kidney, liver and claret. [17] . The metals of highest business organisation, peculiarly chromium, nickel, copper, barium, and lead, can exist seen below in Figures 2-6.

There were xviii dissimilar brands sampled in total. In Figures 2-4, simply the data from the 10 brands with greater than 10 samples each was used because fewer samples did not seem like a sufficient subset of information per manufacturer. Nearly of the inks from the other 8 brands, however, fit the general tendency. In Effigy v and Figure half-dozen, the data encompassed all the samples from all eighteen brands but there was neither barium or lead seen in any of the remaining 16 manufacturers' inks.

Figure 2. Ink samples containing chromium above the LOQ. Samples were grouped past make and only brands with more 10 ink samples were used, where n is the number of sampled inks past that manufacturer. Each bar represents an individual sample. Concentration is given on a logarithmic scale.

Figure iii. Ink samples containing nickel above the LOQ. Samples were grouped by brand and only brands with more x ink samples were used, where n is the number of inks sampled by that manufacturer. Each bar represents an individual sample. Concentration is given on a logarithmic scale.

Effigy 4. Ink samples containing copper to a higher place the LOQ. Samples were grouped by brand and but brands with more than 10 ink samples were used, where n is the number of inks sampled by that manufacturer. Each bar represents an individual sample. Concentration is given on a logarithmic scale.

Figure 5. Ink samples containing barium above the LOQ. Samples were grouped by brand and n is the number of inks sampled by that make. This includes all inks tested but but 2 brands contained any measurable barium. Each bar represents an private sample. Concentration given on a logarithmic scale.

Figure six. Ink samples containing pb above the LOQ. Samples were grouped by make and due north is the number of inks sampled by that make. This includes all inks tested but only ii brands contained whatsoever measurable pb. Each bar represents an individual sample. Concentration given on a logarithmic scale.

Figure ii and Figure iii suggest that the quantities of chromium and nickel nowadays in tattoo ink pigments vary significantly, equally the inks from brands 2, 7, eight, and 10 contained concentrations of chromium and nickel that were ane to 2 orders of magnitude higher than the other brands. Chromium is known to crusade damage to the fundamental nervous system [viii] [eighteen] , and nickel is an allergen to approximately 20% of people and can cause peel sensitivity, rashes, and eczema [19] .

Figure 4 shows the copper distribution betwixt brands, and shows more or less uniformity among manufacturers, compared to the previous figures. The widespread presence of copper in high concentrations in tattoo pigments is most likely associated with copper phthalocyanine blue BN, and phthalocyanine green―ink pigments that take been used in tattoos for nigh 100 years. While copper can cause anemia, liver and kidney damage, every bit well equally stomach and abdominal irritation [17] [18] , it is thought to be relatively rubber when information technology is bound to phthalocyanine. During tattoo removal procedures, however, this metal ion would be freed from its phthalocyanine "muzzle" and would deliquesce into the blood stream.

Though very few of the inks independent barium, Figure 5 is notable because of barium's toxicity and the loftier concentrations in the inks in which it was found. Barium tin can cause damage to the gastrointestinal tract and is a known peel sensitizer and can cause rashes and other skin problems with prolonged contact [8] [20] . It is expected that barium is nowadays in the form of barium chromate, a vivid xanthous paint, as each ink containing barium was found to be accompanied past chromium and was in its highest concentrations in yellow inks (Figure 7).

Figure 6 highlights the presence of lead establish from 2 brands. Atomic number 82 is a known toxin that can crusade kidney failure, hypertension, neurological disorders, birth defects and liver impairment [viii] . Like to barium, it is expected that the pb is present in the class of pb chromate, also a brilliant xanthous compound, every bit each ink that contained pb also independent chromium and was observed exclusively in brilliant green and yellow inks (Effigy 7).

At that place are other elements of business concern that were observed frequently in the inks sampled. Amidst these are manganese and bromine. Manganese was seen in approximately 28% of the inks tested and is known to take adverse health effects. Overexposure to manganese in miners can cause a neurological disorder like to Parkinson'south disease, that causes tremors, difficulty walking, and muscles spasms [17] [21] . Bromine, which was plant in over 26% of the samples, can cause severe skin harm such equally blister formation, brownish discoloration, and ulcers, as well as neurological and kidney damage [22] . Bromine is probable to be office of organic pigments that were not the focus of this report.

The distributions of metals constitute in various tattoo inks sorted past colour are shown in Effigy vii. Bright dark-green inks were establish to contain high concentrations of chromium, manganese, fe, copper, bromine, and barium, as well as traces of atomic number 82. Yellow inks contain similarly substantial amounts of chromium, fe, nickel, and barium, and traces of lead. High concentrations of copper and bromine

Figure 7. Average concentration of each element (ppm) in ink samples by color. Titanium was excluded as information technology was found in very loftier concentrations for almost every colour.

were found present in blue inks. Red and brown inks both showed considerable amounts of chromium, iron, nickel and barium. Purple was the only colour that showed high concentrations of tungsten, nevertheless, it only appeared in two inks which were both from make 8. Purple also had extremely high concentrations of iron and substantial amounts of chromium. Information technology was found that white and orange inks seemed to contain the fewest metals and these occurred at lower concentrations.

4. Word

This study showed that 16 elements, including 15 heavy metals, were present in tattoo inks in readily measurable amounts by rapid x-ray techniques. While a few of these elements are considered nontoxic, a majority of these findings are crusade for concern because it is well established that chromium, manganese, nickel, copper, bromine, barium, and atomic number 82, all of which were commonly found in tattoo inks, have adverse health effects. Since nickel, barium, and bromine are known to cause skin damage such as rashes or eczema, it is suspected that these elements could contribute to infections and peel rashes that normally occur around tattoos over time. More importantly, it appears that some manufacturers are able to provide tattoo inks that have much lower metal content than other manufacturers. These data suggest strongly that pigment design and use, too as quality command even so play an important part in the presence of metals in tattoo inks. In the absenteeism of federal regulation of tattoo inks, we suggest that routine ten-ray assay of tattoo inks and tattoo ink pigments could help consumers avoid pigments with high metal concentrations. The purpose of this paper was not to identify specific brands that have fewer or more metals in their pigments; it was designed to bring attention to the fact that metals are being added to many tattoo inks and is a cause for concern. We exercise not wish to single out any manufacturer simply considering our sampling was not comprehensive for whatever brands given the thousands of inks bachelor commercially worldwide, and represents but a snapshot of some of the most popular brands in the US in 2014-2016. Details about specific inks or brands may be requested from the authors. Clearly further report is warranted on these inks and consumers that would like to avoid potential metal hazards in their inks should have their products tested regularly by any standard x-ray technique that measures metals. Similarly, the concentrations reported here are for stale pigment layers on paper, non actual inks applied to human skin, so the actual concentrations to which consumers are exposed remains unknown.

Another indicate of consideration is that the tattoo removal process is highly toxic to the trunk every bit the laser ablation sends all of the pigment straight into the bloodstream for the immune arrangement to accommodate. Cases of baking and rashes are common during tattoo removal, but recent cases have shown the degradation of carcinogenic compounds from the process as well [23] . Caution should exist exercised with tattoo removal as heavy metal poisoning from the pigments is also plausible. The concentrations of metal ions in the bloodstream during tattoo removal is worthy of further report.

Conflicts of Interest

The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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